The Health of Hunter-Gatherers: A Reassessment of Prehistoric Lifestyles
Article by Chess
While RFK Jr. spurs new debates on the health of industrial food, the real poison is civilization itself. Cutting a few additives is a drop in the bucket compared to the health of hunter-gatherers—something modern archaeology makes increasingly clear. In modern human discourse, hunter-gatherer lifestyles are commonly associated with unnecessary hardship and suffering. This superficial narrative suggests that hunter-gatherers lived in conditions that could be considered unhealthy, while modern humans have "overcome" that "outmoded" way of life. Yet, such a view overlooks a vast amount of archaeological literature that paints a more complete and accurate picture highlighting a superior quality of health and diet that challenges the Hobbesian notion of primitive life as unhealthy.[1]
Both anthropologists and nutritionists generally regard Paleolithic diets as the ideal model for human nutritional standards.[2] Since the genetic makeup of the modern human body is nearly identical to what it was 20,000 years ago, it follows logically that the human palate and digestive system is relatively best suited for hunter-gatherer diets. However, the introduction of agriculture and domestic livestock at the advent of the Neolithic Revolution 10,000 years ago—in addition to increasingly mechanized labor driven by demands for growth, efficiency and productivity as a result of the Industrial Revolution—has radically changed prehistoric human lifestyles, permanently altering our means of sustenance and physical development. Alongside the fact that evolution is universally accepted to be a slow, gradual process, there clearly exists an ever-growing incompatibility between our modern dietary intake and our genetic proclivities that is unlikely to be reconciled in the near future given the current exponential growth of technological progress.
One of the clearest archaeological markers of prehistoric health lies in skeletal evidence. The comparison between the long bones of hunter-gatherers to the bones of farming successors reveals a significant difference. A study published in the PNAS[1] showed that prehistoric foragers from seven thousand years ago had twenty percent more bone mass than early farmers from seven hundred or even six thousand years ago, suggesting a more physically robust hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Additionally, researchers analyzed archaeological human samples representing both sedentary agriculturist and mobile hunter-gatherers and compared those samples to nonhuman primate samples. They discovered that the trabecular bone structure of hunter-gatherers had a relatively higher bone-to-air ratio (i.e., denser bones), similar to that of the primate samples.[2] In another study, researchers used the difference between predicted height based on genetics, and actual skeletal height, as a marker of health when analyzing samples of skeletal remains from the Paleolithic (hunter-gatherer), the Neolithic (early agriculture), and the Iron Age (later agriculture). Their findings strongly support that human health fell dramatically after transitioning away from hunting and gathering and to agriculture (during the Neolithic), then recovered somewhat but never reached hunter-gatherer health during the Iron Age.[3] [4] This discrepancy in long bone lengths between the prehistoric and agriculturist groups implies that early agricultural societies likely suffered from poorer nutrition and disease burden during critical growth periods in childhood, resulting in shorter statures for early European farmers. Hunter-gatherer women from the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages, also exhibited greater arm bone strength, or humeral rigidity, than modern female athletes.[5] These archeological trends clearly indicate that the transition to agriculture was usually accompanied with a decrease in physiological well-being.
Aside from skeletal evidence concerning long bones, examining dental health provides researchers an alternative perspective to objectively analyze the pros and cons of a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. A 1984 study analyzed human skeletal remains taken from the Georgia coast. The skeletal remains from early agricultural societies (A.D. 1150-1550) demonstrated a high frequency of dental caries that is absent in hunter-gatherer (pre-A.D. 1150) remains. In summary, only 1.3% of the preagricultural group had dental caries while 11.6% of the agricultural group showed carious teeth.[6] One explanation for these results is due to the low-protein, carbohydrate-heavy diet introduced by farming practices, which may have contributed to dental decay. Likewise, porotic hyperostosis, a condition typically attributed to iron-deficiency anemia, is common in skeletal remains from early North American agricultural societies,[7] indicating the challenges of meeting the required nutrients through an agricultural diet.
Additionally, analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in human bone marrow taken from the British Isles spanning over the course of the Holocene allowed researchers to reconstruct dietary profiles from prehistoric remains, resulting in the creation of a dataset of ancient food groups which was compared against a dataset of modern food groups. The analysis showed a higher proportion of carbon isotopes associated with domesticated food crops in early farming populations, leading archaeologists to conclude that these societies consumed less protein compared to their hunter-gatherer predecessors.[8] Even evidence from closely related human-like species, such as Australopithecines, points to a more balanced, varied diet of hunter-gatherers.[9] Analyses of Australopithecine dental microwear reveal that these early hominins consumed a mix of hard and soft foods, including seeds and fruits, suggesting a diverse diet that may have promoted better health outcomes than the monotony of early farming diets. Furthermore, micro-wear evidence in early Homo and Homo erectus indicates the capability for meat consumption and adaptability for exploiting the wide range of resources in their available environment. This trend towards a higher quality, varied diet led to the development of larger brains, meeting their increased energy requirements.
While the vast archaeological literature consists mainly of skeletal evidence, other archaeological evidence, such as artifacts, recovered from early agricultural sites further supports the superiority of hunter-gatherer health due to their nutritious diet and active lifestyle. Archaeologists analyzed organic residues inside of pottery found in hunter-gatherer and early agricultural sites from Rakushechny Yar (at the southern fringe of Eastern Europe) and south-west Asia respectively, revealing major differences in diet: pottery from hunter-gatherer societies exhibited exceptional lipid profiles, characterized by a complex mixture of various fatty acids and cholesterols.[10] The evidence of the lipid profile indicates the presence of animal fats, fish oils, and various plant products at the time of collection, which stands as a testament to the richness of their food sources. Thus, the hunter-gatherer diet likely consisted of a nutritional profile highlighted by a higher portion of animal protein compared to those of early agricultural practices.
Parasitic infections provide another point of contrast. Some archaeologists examining coprolite samples (fossilized human feces) discovered that agricultural sites show a high presence of intestinal parasite eggs, suggesting that early farmers faced exposure to harmful parasites, whereas the prevalence of parasitic infection in hunter-gatherers was significantly less. The prevalence of parasitic infection in hunter-gatherers in western arid regions of North America ranged from zero to four percent, but ranged from three to twenty nine percent in early agriculturists within the Great Basin cultural area.[11] These hunter-gatherer coprolite samples, by contrast, clearly show virtually no evidence of such parasitic infections. In one study published by Cambridge University Press, archaeologists recovered nineteen coprolite samples from a midden at a Neolithic settlement two miles away from Stonehenge, Durrington Walls, representative of those who were at the settlement during its time of construction. Nine of these coprolites contained fish tapeworm, parasitic eggs, and capillaria nematodes.[12] The evidence of fish tapeworm in these samples implies that the builders who feasted at Durrington Walls risked parasitic infection due to frequent consumption of raw or undercooked freshwater fish. This observation is reminiscent of the expansion of the Inca Empire, which occurred between the 15th and 16th centuries and has been associated with increased prevalence in fish tapeworms. Prior to the expansion, settlements were small-scale and dispersed in the valley. However, the sudden change in population density along with farmers relying on fish as a means of subsistence resulted in increased risks of developing parasitic infections, including tapeworms and pinworms, suggesting the relative unhealthiness of the Incas' lifestyles during this period of time.
Environmental data further illustrates the trade-offs associated with early agriculture. Pollen grains taken from the sediment beneath the Sea of Galilee indicate nutrient depletion and periods of famine which would partly explain the collapse of civilizations in the surrounding region during the Late Bronze Age.[13] Pollen diagrams were used to reconstruct a model of past environmental influences on the vegetation of the Southern Levant. Increasing aridity led to loss of vegetation cover in the surrounding region, reducing opportunities for grazing and herding. This resulted in crop failure, displaced groups in search of food, and the disruption of the delicate eastern-Mediterranean trade network. Additionally, high runoff and soil deterioration could have possibly been attributed to anthropogenic factors, such as intensive olive cultivation, which was characteristic of that era. Meanwhile, the hunter-gatherers who practiced a more sustainable model of subsistence that allowed for the cyclic process of restoring natural resources to continue were less likely to encounter these issues. For many early agricultural societies, the overreliance on farming would have created an environment marred by soil nutrient depletion, affecting the nutritional quality of crops and thus compromising the health of early farmers.
In sum, the archaeological record strongly contradicts the contemporary notion of hunter-gatherers being less healthy compared to modern humans, undermining a key component of the human "progress" narrative. Furthermore, it suggests that since the advent of the Neolithic Revolution, modern humans encountered a greater number of health-related difficulties that prehistoric adult hunter-gatherers did not face. After the transition from hunter-gathering to agriculture, humans became increasingly sedentary, began consuming poorer diets lacking in essential micronutrients, and experienced higher exposure to parasites and other diseases. Many of the health issues originating from early agricultural societies seem directly linked to the logistics of agricultural practices: monoculture leads to soil depletion, loss of biodiversity, and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases. Clearly, many of the health problems we associate with modern life have roots which stem from the agricultural shift of our ancestors.
___________
NOTES:
[1] Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
[2] "Hunter-gatherer past shows our fragile bones result from physical inactivity since invention of farming," University of Cambridge, December 22, 2014, last accessed on 5/15/25 at: https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/hunter-gatherer-past-shows-our-fragile-bones-result-from-physical-inactivity-since-invention-of.
[3] “Our results suggest that individuals from the Neolithic were significantly shorter than expected relative to individuals from earlier or later periods.” Then: "...There is evidence for a rebound in stature following the Neolithic, consistent with improvements in living conditions during the Bronze and Iron Ages." But it is important to note that these "improvements" were not complete, and the study's Paleolithic samples still significantly outperformed the Iron Age samples in terms of realized stature relative to genetic potential.
[4] Marciniak et al., "An integrative skeletal and paleogenomic analysis of stature variation suggests relatively reduced health for early European farmers," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 15 (April 6, 2022). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2106743119.
[5] Macintosh, Alison A., Ron Pinhasi, and Jay T. Stock. "Prehistoric women’s manual labor exceeded that of athletes through the first 5500 years of farming in Central Europe," Science Advances 3, no. 11 (November 3, 2017). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aao3893.
[6] Cohen, Mark Nathan, and George J. Armelagos, Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, University Press of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 2013, p. 372.
[7] Martin, Debra L, and Alan H Goodman, "Health conditions before Columbus: paleopathology of native North Americans," Western Journal of Medicine 176, no. 1 (January 1, 2002): 65–68. https://doi.org/10.1136/ewjm.176.1.65.
[8] Bird et al., "A carbon and nitrogen isotope perspective on ancient human diet in the British Isles," Journal of Archaeological Science 137 (November 10, 2021): 105516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2021.105516.
[9] Wells, Jonathan C.K., and Jay T. Stock, "The biology of the colonizing ape," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 134, no. S45 (January 1, 2007): 191–222. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20735.
[10] Bondetti et al., “Neolithic farmers or neolithic foragers? Organic residue analysis of early pottery from Rakushechny Yar on the Lower Don (Russia),” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, vol. 13, no. 8, 26 July 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01412-2.
[11] Camacho et al., "Recovering parasites from mummies and coprolites: an epidemiological approach," Parasites & Vectors 11, no. 1 (April 16, 2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-2729-4.
[12] Mitchell et al., "Intestinal parasites in the Neolithic population who built Stonehenge (Durrington Walls, 2500 BCE)," Parasitology 149, no. 8 (May 20, 2022): 1027–33. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0031182022000476.
[13] Langgut, Dafna, Israel Finkelstein, and Thomas Litt, "Climate and the Late Bronze Collapse: New Evidence from the Southern Levant," Tel Aviv (Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University) 40, no. 2 (November 1, 2013): 149–75. https://doi.org/10.1179/033443513x13753505864205.
Copyright © 2025 by Wilderness Front LLC. All Rights Reserved.